The Enduring Legacy of Confucius in Asia
Confucius is easily one of the most important personalities in Asian history. Confucius was a Chinese philosopher, teacher, and political figure who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. He was born in the state of Lu, which is now part of the modern-day province of Shandong, in Northeastern China. Confucius is considered one of the most influential figures in Chinese history, and his teachings have had a lasting impact on Chinese philosophy and culture.
The “golden age” of China, during the Spring and Autumn, and Warring States periods, was marked by disunity and civil strife, but also brought about a time of unprecedented cultural prosperity. During the late Spring and Autumn and early Warring States periods, many distinct philosophies emerged, thus earning the era the moniker of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Subsequently, numerous classical works were generated, which were widely used to construct Chinese practices for the next two and one-half millennia. These thinkers were generally itinerant intellectuals who taught their pupils and provided advice to the various state rulers on matters of government, warfare, and foreign relations.
The School of Literati, also known as the Confucian School in the West, had a lasting influence on Chinese life. Their written works, the Confucian Classics, served as the basis for the structure of traditional society. Confucius (551–479 B.C.), or Master Kong, sought to recreate the Zhou rule as an ideal social and political order. He argued that it was necessary for everyone to abide by established relationships. “Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject a subject,” he said, while emphasizing the importance of the king being virtuous. According to Confucius, the functions of government and social stratification should be maintained by ethical values. His ideal was the junzi, which later was interpreted as meaning gentleman, someone who is highly cultured or distinguished.
The Latinized name “Confucius” was created in the late 16th century by Jesuit missionaries to China, and is a Mandarin Chinese version of Kǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子, “Master Kong”). Confucius’s clan name was Kong (孔) and his given name was Qiu (丘). At his “coming of age” ceremony, he was given a courtesy name of Zhongni (仲尼). This was to distinguish him from his older siblings, as “Zhong” showed he was the second son in his family.
Meng Zi, more commonly known as Mencius, was a devoted follower of Confucianism who significantly impacted the humanistic nature of this ideology. He believed that all humans are inherently good, and that a ruler would not be able to govern unless the population was willing to accept them. If a leader enforced despotism, then they would forfeit the “mandate of heaven.” Mencius lived from 372–289 B.C. The collective contributions of Confucius and Mencius have been pivotal in the formation of the traditional Chinese society, providing a well-rounded structure for governing almost every aspect of life. Their work has been based on moral principles and its interpretation and further development.
Confucius is best known for his teachings on morality and ethics. He believed in the importance of relationships between individuals, and emphasized the importance of loyalty, respect, and responsibility. He also believed that government should be based on merit and that people should strive to live in harmony with one another.
Confucius was born into a poor family and was a diligent student from a young age. Confucius was a part of a family which traced back its ancestry to the Shang dynasty that preceded the Zhou. The area was nominally controlled by the Zhou kings, but was in fact self-governed by the local lords of Lu from the city of Qufu. His father, Kong He, formerly held the position of commandant of the local Lu garrison. Historical accounts say that Kong He’s grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu.
When Confucius was three years old, his father Kong He had passed away. His mother, Yan Zhengzai, raised him in financial hardship. She died when she was 40 years old. At the age of 19, Confucius married Lady Qiguan, and the two had a son, Kong Li. They were also blessed with two daughters, one of whom unfortunately didn’t survive infancy, and the other was named Kong Jiao
Confucius studied the ancient Chinese classics and was an avid reader of philosophy and history. He was a skilled debater and was known for his wit and intelligence. When he was in his twenties, Confucius began teaching others in his village. He soon gained a reputation as an authoritative figure and began teaching a large number of students. He taught by example, and his teachings focused on morality, ethics, and the importance of relationships between individuals.
In his later years, Confucius traveled throughout China and taught his philosophies to people of all social classes. Along the way, he shared his political philosophies at the courts of these states, but he never got to see them put into practice. He wrote numerous books on philosophy, government, and morality. He also wrote about the importance of education, the importance of filial piety, and the need for social order.
No tuition was required by Confucius from his students. He only requested a token of dried meat from any student interested in learning from him. According to his disciple Zigong, his master handled students similarly to how a doctor would handle their patients and never turned anybody away. Most of them were from his home state Lu, with 43 recorded, but pupils from across China were also accepted, including those from the states of Wey, Qin, Chen, Qi, Cai, Chu, and Song. Confucius disregarded the backgrounds of his students, welcoming noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and Gongye Chang. Those with more affluent families would pay an amount which was in line with their wealth and was seen as a ceremonial offering.
Through Confucius’ tutelage, his disciples gained knowledge of government principles and techniques. The teacher held long conversations and debates with his students, and placed great importance on their study of history, literature, and ritual. Confucius taught that reform ought to be achieved through persuasion, rather than through force, and that loyalty should be to principles, not to personal power.
At the age of 71 or 72, Confucius passed away due to natural causes. This was after having experienced the death of his son and a few of his most beloved disciples. His burial place is the Kong Lin cemetery in the historic part of Qufu, Shandong Province.
Confucius’ teachings have had an immense impact on Chinese society. His teachings of benevolence, filial piety, and respect for tradition have been embraced by generations of Chinese people. Confucius’ teachings have had an immense impact on Chinese politics and government. His teachings of benevolence and respect for tradition have been embraced by generations of Chinese rulers, and his teachings were often used as the foundation for Chinese government and politics.
Legalism emerged in China as an alternate to Confucianism. Xun Zi (ca. 300–237 B.C.) was in stark contrast to Mencius and his teachings. He believed that human beings are innately selfish and wicked, and that morality can be achieved only through proper training and acting according to one’s societal role. He also argued that the most effective government is one that is ruled by authoritative control, and not based on moral or ethical influence. Xun Zi’s hard-line and authoritative leanings were manifested in the doctrine of the School of Law (Fa). This was crafted by Han Fei Zi (d. 233 B.C.) and Li Si (d. 208 B.C.), who argued that human nature is naturally self-serving and that the only way to keep the social order is to impose control from the top down and uphold laws firmly. The Legalists put the state first, valuing its prosperity and military power over the welfare of the public.
The development of Legalism ran parallel to the realignment of Confucian thought and brought about a conflict between the two ideologies. In 223 BCE, the Qin state conquered the entirety of China and Prime Minister Li Si convinced Qin Shi Huang to reject the Confucians’ suggestion of awarding fiefs, which he believed was counter to the Legalist notion of centering the state around the ruler. When the Confucians maintained their position, Li Si had many Confucian scholars executed and their books destroyed, bringing devastating consequences to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship.
Legalism became the philosophical foundation of the imperial system of governance. When the most useful elements of Confucianism and Legalism were combined in the Han period (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), a governing structure was formed that remained largely in place until the late nineteenth century.
The Song dynasty scholar Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) blended ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. Although Zhu Xi was initially overlooked, his interpretation of Confucianism eventually became the accepted meaning. Historians today refer to this as Neo-Confucianism, which was the dominant belief system in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century.
Confucius’ teachings began in China and spread throughout Asia. For example, Confucius’ teachings have helped shape the culture and society of Korea in numerous ways. His teachings on family and education have been particularly influential in Korean society. His teachings are still followed in many aspects of Korean life, such as politics, education, and business. His philosophy has been so ingrained in the culture that it is often difficult to distinguish between Confucianism and Korean culture.
The Korean Chosn Dynasty (1392–1910) was based on Neo-Confucianism, which amalgamates the teachings of Confucius and Mencius with Buddhist and Daoist philosophies. This system of beliefs suggests that the regulations and customs of human society reflect the rules of the universe. Through adhering to the principles laid out by Confucian sages, people can reach a spiritual equilibrium with the cosmos, even though it is not often referred to as such. Neo-Confucianism also prescribes social relationships at all levels of society, with the focus being on the integration of individuals into the collective, mirroring the harmony of nature.
In the Choson Dynasty, Korean rulers adopted neo-Confucianism, which had been created by the Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Korean neo-Confucian scholars, such as Yi Hwang, or Yi T’oe-gye (1501–70), made adjustments to Zhu Xi’s ideologies to fit the Korean context without disregarding China’s fundamental supremacy in terms of its culture and ideals.
By the 15th century, Neo-Confucianism had become a very inflexible and traditional philosophy in Korea. In practice, it encouraged hierarchy and personal restraint. The Five Relationships, which had been first outlined by Mencius and then hallowed by Zhu Xi and other neo-Confucianists, were seen as the standard for how people should interact: father and son were to love one another, rulers and subjects were to be fair to each other, husbands and wives were to follow their respective roles, elders and youngsters were to observe the proper order of things, and friends were to be faithful. The last was the only relationship between equals; the others were based on authority and submission.
Confucius’ teachings have also had a significant impact in Japan. Confucianism first came to Japan in the 6th century CE, when it was introduced by Chinese immigrants. The teachings of Confucius were embraced by the Japanese court and quickly spread through the country. Confucianism began to influence Japanese culture and society, and it became the foundation of the Japanese educational system. Confucian values such as respect for authority, loyalty, and filial piety were taught in schools and became part of the Japanese way of life.
Confucianism influenced Vietnam as well. The Religions of South Vietnam in Faith and Fact stated: “Confucianism was introduced into Vietnam early during the Chinese rule, and has maintained much of its influence since that time. In 1072, there was a temple dedicated to Confucius and his leading 72 disciples. Located in Hanoi, this temple was called the Temple of Literature. In Saigon, at the Botanical Gardens, there is a temple dedicated to Confucius called the Temple of Souvenirs. This is the site of Confucius’ birthday celebration which is solemnly honored each year.”
There is little doubt that Confucianism had played a significant role in Asia’s politics and culture for several centuries, but the relevancy of Confucianism came under question in the 1900s when some began to view Confucianism as a backwards ideology. This issue came up when the Chinese Nationalist Government decided to abolish all ceremonies which were held in memory of Confucius. The Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh reacted to this news on February 20, 1927. He wrote: “The Annamites and their emperors have also worshiped the great sage since ancient times. But now the Chinese government has decreed that in the future no official worship will be made for Confucius. This is a truly revolutionary act!”
Ho viewed this as a revolutionary act because Confucius did not live in a time of capitalism and imperialism, so Confucius’ brain was never troubled by revolutionary doctrines. Ho explained: “His morality is perfect, but it is incompatible with the modern trend of thinking. How can a round lid fit onto a square box?” Ho also noted that monarchs revered Confucius because he made propaganda for them which they were able to exploit. Ho explained: “Confucianism is based on the three great subjugations — between subjects and rulers, between son and father, between wife and husband — as well as on the five cardinal virtues: humanity, justice, civility, prudence, and sincerity.” In Ho’s view, Confucius favored the oppressor over the oppressed.
In spite of his criticisms of Confucius’ “anti-revolutionary” doctrine, Ho was not prepared to do away with Confucius as the government of China was doing. Ho explained: “By abolishing the ceremonies in memory of Confucius, the Chinese government has done away with an outdated institution that is contrary to the democratic spirit. But as far as we Annamites are concerned, let us improve ourselves intellectually by reading the works of Confucius, and revolutionarily by reading the works of Lenin.” Part of Ho’s reason for not throwing away Confucius was that Ho believed that Confucius would have changed his views based on the new circumstances which existed. Ho also believed that Confucius provided an example of communisms applicability in Asia, stating: “The great Confucius (551 B.C.), advocated in favor of internationalism and preached the equality of fortune. He said, among other things, that ‘world peace can only come from a universal republic. One should not fear to have little, but not to have in an equal manner. Equality cancels poverty, etc.’”
One aspect of Confucius’ teachings which Ho was critical of was Confucius’ view on women. Ho noted that “Confucius once said: the husband must govern the wife.” The Confucian believe in familiar hierarchy was one which placed the man in a dominant position over women. This also influenced the structure of gender relationships throughout Confucian societies in Asia.
With the spread of communism throughout Asia, some nationalist leaders began to view Confucianism as a backwards and reactionary doctrine which needed to be removed for Asian nations to advance. Ho certainly expressed some of these views, but the greatest challenge to Confucianism came from Mao Zedong of China.
Mao Zedong, also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese Communist revolutionary and leader who served as the chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 1945 to 1976. He was one of the most influential and powerful figures in Chinese history, and his policies and actions had a lasting impact on the nation. He was born in 1893 in a rural village in Shaoshan, Hunan Province and died in 1976. During his lifetime, Mao Zedong was a major proponent of Marxism-Leninism and was committed to ushering in a socialist revolution in China.
Mao Zedong was raised in a peasant family, but his father made sure he had access to education. Mao attended a local school in Hunan and later went to a higher school in Beijing, where he was exposed to Marxist ideas. After graduating, Mao worked as an assistant librarian at Peking University and became involved with the Chinese Communist Party.
Mao was a voracious reader in his youth and he read widely on a variety of topics, including Marxist theory and Chinese philosophy. He was particularly influenced by the works of Karl Marx and Lenin and was heavily influenced by the Communist Manifesto. Mao Zedong was also influenced by the writings of Chinese scholar Lu Xun, who was a major figure in China’s New Culture Movement.
Confucius became one of the prominent targets of the Cultural Revolution. Confucius was not only one of the most important philosophers in China’s history, but his ideas have also impacted other parts of Asia as well, including Japan. In the view of Maoists, the doctrines of Confucius and Mencius (another prominent Chinese philosopher) represented a remnant of the exploiting class which shackled the minds of the people. For this reason, Maoists in China argued that these doctrines needed to be challenged to advance the revolutionary struggle of the working class in China. The targeting of Confucius was part of the process of targeting and eliminating old cultural ideas which were entrenched in the minds of the Chinese people.
Kim Il Sung of North Korea was influenced by Mao, but whereas Mao sought to overturn the historical legacy of Confucius in China, Kim embraced it and even used Confucian ethics to help solidify his rule over North Korea.
In the decades that followed Mao’s death, Mao continued to be honored as a hero in China and the father of the country, but China has largely moved away from the legacy of the Cultural Revolution. The decades following Mao’s death also saw a resurgence of Confucianism. Since the 1980s, Chinese intellectuals inside and outside of China have strived to revive Confucian views after the brutal suppression of it during the Cultural Revolution.
Whereas Ho and Kim attempted to incorporate Confucianism into the states that they were building, Mao held the view that Confucianism was reactionary and out of place with the type of communist society which he sought to build in China. In the end, Confucianism survived the onslaught from the Cultural Revolution, which demonstrates the enduring legacy of Confucius’s doctrines.
